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Psychology of Language Concept Language

relevant articles to section:

• Concept Language
• Psychological Perspective on the Study of Language
• Psychological Processes Language
• Language Perception
• Word Recognition and Comprehension
• Language Understanding
• Speech Understanding
• Language Production
• Language Production and Conversation

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INTRODUCTION

basic duality that characterizes language:
The language is characterized by a basic duality. On one side is so natural and spontaneous in the first year of life and, secondly, it requires great control, complexity and difficulty to be handled in certain situations as learning a second language, mistakes made, etc.
Inaccuracy of any attempt to define the language: Any attempt
language definition is vague because of the multiplicity of perspectives of study, ambiguity or polysemy and blur their boundaries, their conception common.
variety and diversity of disciplines involved:
The study of language is a complex area of \u200b\u200binterest to both the psychology and biology, linguistics, philosophy, sociology, computer science, semiotics, medical sciences and others.
Need to arrange a series of features to analyze the specificity of language:
need to realize a number of features or to analyze the specific features of language, because of the broad definitions lead nowhere.

scientific conceptualization LANGUAGE: DIMENSIONS OF ANALYSIS

Some definitions of language. Similarities and differences between them:
The common conception of language has a great polysemy. There are also many formal definitions of language, but among them there are a number of regularities (from the scientific point of view) and language:

1. be interpreted as a system composed of units (linguistic signs) whose internal organization can be subject of formal or structural description.
2. possible acquisition and use the specific form of agency relationship means (social).
3. is materialized in, and leads to forms specific behavior is interpreted as a behavior.

Basic dimensions that allow analysis of features or characteristics mentioned above:
The three dimensions or components of language definition are:

1. formal or structural dimension: notice how the language system itself. Dimension
2. functional realize what it is the language the user.
3. behavioral dimension: notice how language is used.

formal dimension / structure of language:
The language is interpreted as a system of elements (signals, signs and symbols). A formal code of signs and formal requirements (rules) of combination of these signs. This approach allows the construction of three principles or properties of language: semantic descriptions

1. : relationship between the signifier (physical perception of the subject) and their significance.
2. syntactic conditions where the combinations of signs are acceptable. Descriptions
3. pragmatic conditions where used combinations of signs. Concept

language faculty: body's ability to acquire and use a form (code) language skills in a mode. In humans, this possibility may be the result of cognitive or learning a skill can be seen as species-specific.
functional or communicative dimension of language:
Language development is functionally linked to activities such as communication and social interaction, emotional expression, knowledge of reality, voluntary behavior and rational thought. This dimension requires functional shift attention from the language itself to the user who knows and uses this language, so, this is seen as a symbolic mediator of interaction with our peers.
The language is interpreted as an instrument functionally linked to the spheres of activity of the subjects (emotional, social, cognitive), which relates to the issuer, either the receiver or with the appearance of reality to which it relates.
• behavioral dimension of language: The language
considered a type of behavior / activity / behavior that makes the body. Takes two primary modes of behavior (production and comprehension) that are combined during the conversation. These elementary procedures may be described from the drawings: Neurophysiological

1. : identifying the physiological and neuroanatomical structures. Behavioral
2. Identifies history consistent behavior. Cognitive
3. Identifies internal representations and processes.

Research on language can be done from two perspectives.

• psychological perspective (the one studied in the book). Assumptions:
1. mechanisms of linguistic activity can not be reduced to neurophysiological descriptions.
2. Interest in studying the expressive functions, cognitive and social difficulties that language serves as a support.
• Comparative Perspective. Assumptions:
1. different linguistic systems, resulting from cognitive, social and emotional structures require different and distinct functional systems. Although functionally
2. all language can be assimilated to the scheme described by Bühler, specific modes of language performance may reflect differences between species.

HUMAN LANGUAGE AND OTHER LANGUAGES: STRUCTURAL FEATURES DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF VERBAL LANGUAGE

Arbitrariness of units and structures:
refers to the independence between signs and referents, between grammatical principles rules regarding the cognitive and social functions played by the linguistic activity. Cultural transmission: each community culture has its own rules and grammar, each language is a special case of language to be learned by their speakers.
constitutive function of the object:
Every culture has its own signs and grammar, that enable a peculiar way to describe objects, events, facts of reality. This feature is accentuated in the hypothesis of linguistic determinism or cultural relativism of Sapir and Shorf.
common formal features:
basic units (sounds, words); rules (which can form sentences and texts), restrictions (regarding the order as the words form sentences) predictive or propositional structure. Universal grammar (Chomsky): certain formal properties of language are universal and specific traits define skills and potentials of the species. Features
linguistic signals:
The oral mode requires two channels (one vocal and one ear), which implies certain anatomical and functional requirements. Physical properties: refers to the parameters of amplitude, frequency, duration, etc., Of the acoustic signal.
internal structure:
There is a double articulation: the language consists of two types of units: phonemes (meaningless) and morphemes (meaningful). Morphemes are a combination of phonemes.
The discrete and continuous:
relevant units (phonemes, words, etc.) Admit a graph discontinuous or discrete, whereas oral transmission involves an acoustic signal of a continuing nature, the listener must be segmented into discrete units . In the graphical representation, these units are combined with rules relevant phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic, all contained in the grammars of each language.
hierarchical and componential organization of linguistic units:
organization fit other parameters messages, which have a continuous nature and suprasegmental, ie prosodic features of the voice for the volume, intonation, etc.

ORAL LANGUAGE FUNCTIONAL

The arbitrary nature of signs, its double articulation and their productivity in verbal language allow a potential function that modulates the expressive, representational function and communicative function .
representational function Features: Scrolling
reference: verbal signs may refer to aspects of present reality, past or future whether real or imaginary. Ie do not need a physical reference to this at the moment.
second signal system: language operates with mental representations of reality, ie meanings that the abstraction of certain properties of objects and giving it a metarrepresentacional.
reference displacement and being a second set of signals transform the language into a general-purpose representational system. Language can be used to talk about himself (reflexivity) causing metalinguistic knowledge. Besides the possibility of analyzing their own behavior is the seed of self-reflexive consciousness.
Language not only represents reality, it also describes its properties and qualified to represent the same reality and constitutes an analytical system of representation.
Other features would be the ambiguity of language statements, connotations that modulate the meaning of words, transgression (reality distortion), inconsistencies in the information. Features
communicative function:
The verbal system is a biological or natural communication, specializing in the transmission of meaningful information that is relevant from the viewpoint of adaptive and behavioral.
Such information can take place both interpersonal and intrapersonal, serving as an important instrument of self-regulation of the activity.
declarative language function: the designation is a unique feature of human communication, which gives it its specificity compared to other communication systems.
Language is more than a simple transmission mechanism. Thus, in the Shannon and Weaver model of communication exchange is interpreted as situations where a sender encodes the message and a receiver decodes. Stressing the intentional nature of human linguistic activity and the interpretation of intended meaning and not just a reference.
Verbal language is a redundant communication system, where grammatical signals involving the repetition of the same communicative content within the message. This redundancy determines the easy language predictivity of the listener.

LANGUAGE FEATURES OF VERBAL BEHAVIOR

Special freedom in speech production.
linguistic behavior implies that no dependency relationships necessary for the stimuli, and that individuals can take their linguistic responses independently seeking emotional and cognitive components the message. For these reasons, the linguistic behavior is considered a prototypical case of intelligent behavior, intentional and purposeful, the realization presupposes the establishment of goals and objectives.
interchangeability of roles and feedback.
linguistic activity has the characteristics of interchangeability of roles between sender and receiver, and the need to complete the face feedback to continue the conversation.

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Psychological Perspective on the Study of Language Language

INTRODUCTION

Types debate that characterized the language until the nineteenth century:
refers to the grammatical and philosophical reflections on whether the ideas of language support and understanding were innate or acquired by sensory experience, whether or not it is thought possible without the language, if language emerged in humans in response to a psychological need (communication) or sociological (collaboration), if the first words were derived or natural sounds, imitation, etc..

Explain if any of them are somehow existing in current psychology: According to Lounsbury
threads on these issues, which served the controversy between abnormal and analog, concealing a theological debate, that is natural or supernatural origin of language. From Humboldt
language is considered integral to the human species, revealing yet serves to support mental activity, and there as long as anyone can recreate it in each new act of speech.

Contributions Von Humboldt, Wundt and Saussure. Why can say that these are the authors introduce a psychological perspective in the study of language? What do they contribute to the conceptualization of language and what is the vision or the same approach is replaced by a new one? Humboldt starts
modern scientific study of language and its relation to psychology:

1. By linguistic distinction (distinction between ergon enérgeia product and power), breaks the traditional interpretation assimilating language to a mere packaging, static and self-enclosed, with which to convey ideas and concepts. The term logos no longer seen as mere addition of words to become a component of human mental activity becomes a process. The language is not limited to specific productions, but is defined by the possibility of countless others.
2. Language is a power inherent to the human species that supports mental activity, and exists as anyone can recreate it in every speech act. Humboldt psychologizing into his conceptualization of language, to question the possibility of delinking the study of other mental processes influenced the rise of modern linguistics and psychology. Wundt

interprets the language as a collective process of interest to the folk psychology, said while the idea of \u200b\u200blanguage as an individual process explained by the general psychology / experimental.
Saussure said the idea that language should be considered a branch of general psychology, showing how the scientific study of language needed psychological contributions.

THE RESEARCH PROGRAM OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE

FEATURES

approach to the research program of the psychology of language:

• Interest in the subject. Nature
• procedures empirical validation of theories.
• nature of its object of study (language and linguistic activity) and its complexity scientific.

the psychological precursors of language:

• The abandonment of the interpretations that identified language as a closed set of signs whose function would be the label of a pre-existing mental or physical reality. Vision
language
• near a generating capacity or activity of both signs and ideas.

Interest in the subject and the explanation of linguistic activity:

• From a psychological perspective, language is conceived as a phenomenon whose existence, nature and genesis is closely related to the organisms that possess (the humans).
• Language can be interpreted in psychological terms, as a power that emerges in, or who have certain types of organisms (human species) from certain of their biological properties and inner psychic.

Justification for the Psychology of Language in that branch or discipline of scientific psychology What she shares with her?:

• language under investigation is typical psychological, first because it is a phenomenon that is part repertoires of skills and natural behavior of some organisms (humans), and second because it makes possible the subjects that have particular forms of relationship and action with their environment or reality.
• 's interest in the psychological perspective to explain language as a human capacity is indirect support in experimental studies reveal a concern for the explanation of the macrogénesis (capacity of the species) and microgenesis (personnel) and an interest the functional relationship of language and linguistic behavior with other abilities and behaviors.

Why, however, should not be considered in the Psychology of Language as a mere extension of scientific explanations of other forms of behavior?:
A psychology is not interested in language as a finished product itself or closed. Interested in that language is acquired, used, and is functional in subjects and bodies of different species and among them, and particularly so in the human species. The Psychology of Language
has committed and differentiated research content within the field of psychological research. These contents are divided into three cores:

1. study the production and comprehension of language (in monologues and conversations and in different forms of language, and verbal / oral, no-verbal/no-oral, etc.).
2. study of cognitive functions, communication, etc., played by language and serve to support their acquisition and use.
3. The study of acquisition processes and deterioration of the functions and modalities of linguistic activity. That is, the language in developmental and pathological aspects. Nature

empirical psychological research and methodological strategies of language. General methodological alternatives Psychology of Language:

• Since the main objective of the Psychology of Language is to offer explanatory models of linguistic behavior, referring to an actual user, you need to have actual data from the users and verified empirically. Yet the characteristics and peculiarities of human language requires the design of experimental situations and establishment of specific parameters.
• The psychology of language identifies its primary objective to study the language and activity. Thus, unlike other disciplines are more focused on internal organization of language (which they anchor their validation criteria formal criteria strictly empirical), while establishing a branch of scientific psychology. Justify

psychology of language in that empirical science:
As a branch of scientific psychology, psychology of language is an empirical discipline based on observation, measurement and verification of real language behavior of individuals, in order to develop general principles of explanation and identification of different linguistic forms.
Another important aspect of the psychology of language is the analysis of the approaches in relation to its subject matter and in relation to the empirical procedures and theories.
plans or levels of description of the psychology of language considered as alternative explanation of the activity human language: Plano

• physical or neurobiological, involves the analysis of the substrate material on which sits the language skills and linguistic activity, both in terms of macro (central and peripheral systems and developmental stages) and microstructure (neurons or groups of neurons). Plano
• behavior: interest directly observable actions that manifest the speakers' linguistic skills. These events require a theoretical and conceptual framework itself strictly psychological. The task of the psychologist would describe the response in terms of language topography, frequency / intensity, its antecedents and consequences. Plano
• intentional descriptions: the language can be interpreted as an instrument of representation of reality and interpersonal communication, referring to a reality different from yours and whose description is based on the use of psychological mental powers relating to ideas, beliefs, wishes or expectations of the subjects. Allows the description of both propositional or semantic content of the messages and the activities of language users. Moreover statements or utterances are not under external control both the circumstances of the control environment as it of intentional attitudes of individuals who produce or interpret. Plano
• computer descriptions: the linguistic activity is the result of applying a set of mental processes (rules or specific computer algorithms) on symbolic representations unobservable (mental language) that involve specific knowledge (language / grammar) and other more general.

Why is it absolutely necessary, at least in its current state, to provide various levels of descriptions?
There is no single psychological approach, theoretically homogeneous, the study language, nor a single way of doing psychology of language, rather there are so many psychology of language as modes of explanation have been developed in scientific psychology. Thus, the description of linguistic activity is done from different levels.

OBSERVATIONAL METHODOLOGY

What is?
refers to the observation of linguistic behavior as it occurs in the presence of the researcher, and participate or not in the situation. When observation applies to oneself is called introspection.
What are the precautions to be taken into account in applying this methodology to the study of language and why?
influence on language performance of certain variables of the context requires methodological precautions to ensure the replicability of the observations.
Due to the existence of inter and intra-individual differences, control mechanisms are needed to ensure the representativeness of such language samples obtained in relation to the repertoire of the subject and its interpretation as an example of behavior is not accidental.
What are its limitations and its advantages over the experiment?

• to describe and classify the different forms of activity of the subjects and hypothetical relationships between variables. Allows
• narrow the range of linguistic behavior that can be performed by members of the human species under different conditions (evolutionary, diagnostic, etc.) And language functions and activities of the subjects.
• allows identification of regularities and the limits of language performance of individuals and species.
• not allow direct testing of causal hypotheses.
• data to describe and classify the different forms of activity of the subjects, relationships between variables associated to its realization, exploration and description of individual and group differences, but does not allow causal hypotheses.
• Systematic observation involves the selection, registration and coding target a set of behaviors of the organisms in order to achieve certain theoretical purposes.

hypothetical-deductive method

Characteristics and phases:
The experimental methodology is characterized by the application of hypothetical-deductive method, with the first phase of development of hypotheses about those aspects of reality that constitute its object study, a phase of deduction in relation to the type of comments you expect to find, and a phase of checking the validity of their assumptions and deductions by experiment.
The experiment is an artificial and controlled situation where you manipulate the independent variable and observed its effects on the dependent variable, keeping other variables controlled foreign calls. If it is not possible to manipulate VI, then it is a study by selection.
Explain the four problems presented in relation to the study of language difficulty
develop hypotheses about the mechanisms and systems involved in linguistic behavior sufficiently to generate accurate empirical predictions.
difficulty in the interpretation and generalization of the results of statistical tests to other groups of subjects and materials other than those used in the experiments.
difficulty using the experimental methodology in the field of language production, compared to its ease of use in understanding processes. This asymmetry is negative at the time of elaborate theories of integration of linguistic activity. Difficulty
sufficient control of contextual conditions where the activity is linguistic.
Why was considered that the pilot study comprehension and production have a very different problem?
Refers to the requirement of control (elimination of extraneous variables, consistency of values, etc..) In the case of language is incompatible with the nature of the research object, especially as more molars are intentional aspects of behavior of interest to the researcher.

SIMULATION

describe what this method, assessing what brings on experimental and observational methods:
While observational and experimental methods that allow data to develop scenarios come from living organisms in the simulation data is provided by a computer. It is equipped with a database of features and programs that solve tasks of language production and comprehension (simulation of human language.) It is based on the concept of mind-computer functional equivalence.
The simulation operates similarly to an experiment. Thus, handling and storage systems function programs, noting its effects on linguistic behavior produced by the computer.
The simulation has the advantage, in relation to observation and experimentation, that its goal is a form of intelligent activity such as language, involving the use of complex systems of knowledge to be reviewed and updated in line with external and internal variables.
Why in the last decades, often used for simulation?
The development of computational paradigm and technology of building computers.
The need to study more complex and contextualized forms of linguistic activity (production and comprehension consistent.)

CONDUCT THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE: SUMMARY

• Plans neurobiological, behavioral, intentional and computational refer to classes of phenomena irreducible to one another, but must be seen as compatible with regard to the psychological explanation of linguistic activity.
• The preference for a level of description or another, and the inclusion / exclusion of components of the linguistic activity determines the theoretical approach to the scientific study of language. The integrated study of blueprints and components set the work of current cognitive psychology.

• components of knowledge bases indicate the core of cognitive psychologists interested in the study of knowledge representation and AI generally.
• components represent processing mechanisms explanations cognitive / mentalist language. Whether intentional language (meaning-focused) and the computer.
• neurobiological substrate components define the disciplinary field of cognitive neuropsychology of language. Compact neural mechanisms are linked to language functions to which is an innate character. Equipotential neural mechanisms are functionally linked to other domains more general (non-linguistic) of the subject's activity. The level
• of overt behavior would place the contributions of behaviorism.

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Psychological Processes

INTRODUCTION

ON THE CONCEPT OF PROCESS IN PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE

types of basic questions and priorities for the psychology of language, causes (disagreements basically) for which at present have not yet received satisfactory answers from the same:
basic questions and priority psychology Language is made and causes of current problems that have not yet received a response: What happens when we understand and produce language? How do we use linguistic knowledge to decode speech sounds in ideas and codify our ideas into words and sounds? What are the processes we use to implement these activities? Seems due to general philosophical problems.
There is no agreement among psychologists about what constitutes psycholinguistic process, which must be the unit of analysis of linguistic behavior and what are the mechanisms that account for the operation of the processes involved in language. This general problem is decomposed into more specific, derived from the descriptive level types (multidimensional) involved.

Problems of the different levels involved:
Language is a physical activity (baseline) that is exercised by anatomical structures such as ears, eyes, respiratory tract and vocal production. Also a neural substrate (neurons, synapses, etc..) Related to autonomous systems responsible for the implementation of linguistic processes.
language is an intelligent and intentional behavior (middle). The relevant dimension is the nature representational or symbolic, that is, their ability to refer to objects, situations and experiences outside the language, and convey intentions, thoughts and desires above the animals.
Language is a communication skills (level close to deliberate, but independent), ie its ability to transmit information between speaker and listener and share experiences and private attitudes and inaccessible to direct observation.

COGNITIVE APPROACH IN THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE ACTIVITY

features mentalist or cognitive approach. Characterization of the subject in this approach: Consider
linguistic activity a set of mental phenomena arising from the language, that is, procedures that allow us and use (performance) our system of language knowledge (competence), a system of abstract processes that operates on the information represented in the competition and other systems (mental or cognitive mode).
The distinctive features of mental or cognitive approach are two:

1. The human subject is active, makes environmental stimuli, organizing its activities according to plans and strategies that guide their behavior, so behavior is not determined only in the middle.
2. behavior is organized in a hierarchical and recursive schemes through structures and processes and internal representations. Ie, rules with its own internal logic. Concept

process and concept of representation:
mental process means any operation which, applied on a mental state input (input), occurs as a result (output) a different mental state. This includes any activity that requires mediation of mental representations.
representation: the language can be defined in terms of a representation that the subject makes of reality, so the reference can be released immediately.

types of information processing system:
processing system uses linguistic information (semantic, syntactic, lexical, phonological), extra-linguistic (knowledge of the world, the location, etc..) And specific treatment this information.

TWO PARADIGMS OF EXPLANATION OF psycholinguistic processes

Paradigms explanation of the psycholinguistic processes:
Classic approach: computational or information processing. Computer metaphor and analogy:

1. mental processes work as a computer operations. Here are internal states (computer), and a series of instructions that allow the change from one state to another. The properties of mental states / computer are those concerning the organization of the elements / primitive symbols of the system and not the content of these symbols.
2. elements of the metaphor: The human mind (= computer) is seen both as a physical system (brain and mind in the computer hardware) and an abstract mechanism of information processing (software). Where receive a status input, a channel (= mind) and an exit status or output. Functionalism
3. against behaviorism and physicalism, functionalism According
   1. mental events (processes and representations) are defined under the causal roles they play in the cognitive system. It is opposed to behaviorism (defender of functionalism based on stimulus control of behavior) and physicalism (for every mental event is reducible to biological basis supporting it.)
   2. cognitive processes are described using flow diagrams of components, where each process is the mediator between a representation of input and output representation.
4. concepts of representation and process in classical and computational approach:
   1. Performances: mental states characterized by the provision that members adopt the elements (information structures) of representations. For example, a process of understanding is structured syllables phonological representations, syntactic and conceptual representations.
   2. Processes: the system executes instructions to convert a representation into another outlet. For example, a syntactic representation becomes another coupling conceptual semantic roles to syntactic constituents, in order to perform the function played in prayer. Focus

connectionist (or parallel distributed processing), McClelland and Rumelhart:

1. The cognitive system or network is a set of representation units (nodes) interconnected transmitting excitatory and inhibitory activity, transmit and receive influence. The system state is defined under the general pattern of activation of the network nodes. This pattern may be modified based on events that modify the activation of nodes, resulting in the spread (analogous to neurons in the SN).
2. symbolic and subsymbolic levels:
   1. representation units (Nodes) do not correspond to natural classes (phonemes, syllables, etc.).. Thus it is said that connectionist models do not operate with symbols, but more molecular units (microrrasgos) subsymbolic systems they are.
   2. The system consists of structured representations and structure of the representations does not constrain the computations performed by the system. Connectionist model is not computational. Concepts
3. node, weight, activation and connectivity patterns:
   1. Weight: coefficient that multiplies the input node activation from units that supply information. Semantically related words have greater weight.
   2. Node: display units that transmit interconnected network activity. Can be input, internal, and output. The output reflects the overall level of activation and corresponds to the state or representation of the system at the end of the process.
   3. Activation: The process that is "excited" for each node. Activation spreads between nodes through the process of spreading activation. The activation process is gradual, ie, propagates and decays slowly.
   4. connectivity pattern: refers to a kind of map that the overall pattern of activation creates between different network nodes (entry domestic output).
Questions

basic cognitive perspective (computational and connectionist models)
physical signal linguistic representation: the need to explain how to transform the physical signals of speech and language in mental representations them in physical signals.
Criteria for identification of different types of psycholinguistic processes: the need to clarify to what extent some other processes are independent. This problem of specificity of language brings us to the hypothesis of the architectural organization of language processing system, ie the relationships between the various processes of action.
identification or expression of propositional attitudes. The problem of intentionality: the need to account for propositional processes also involve the construction of representations of propositional meaning of the statement, the planning of communicative intention that this statement expresses. These functions (third order) are only possible thanks to the language, due to the nature of this meta-representational system of symbols.
allocation of resources or the problem of cognitive control of linguistic behavior. Controlled versus automatic mechanisms: more resources are allocated processing to the interpretation of the meaning of the structural aspects and linguistic activity is based on binding machines and mechanisms, with little conscious and voluntary control, while another part of the activity makes use of more rational and thoughtful arrangements.

LEVELS OF PROCESSING IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE

The language comprehension and production of complex processes or activities are constituted by an integrated set of processes and representations that operate at different levels of processing.

general concept of functional architecture language processing system:
language processing are considered analogous to an assembly line, and the representations used by the processor is equivalent to the assembled parts and processes of the sector correspond to assembly operations. The integrated system of processes that constitute the language processor called
system architecture relevant issues in architecture of the system:
The reference to the structure or architecture (available processing components in the system) processor language. Features: Autonomy versus

1. interaction.
2. global versus modular architecture.
The

regarding the functioning of the processes (operations psycholinguistic nature and time course of action.)

Main features of the autonomous model of language processing. Concept of seriality: subsystems self

Organization Hierarchical structure of threads. Sequential operation: one-way information flow: bottom-up perception and understanding, and top-down in production.
verification of communication between subsystems is achieved by these products, ie, representations arising from its computations.
The concept of serialization refers to the hierarchical organization of threads, each receiving information from the previous. Thus the one-way information flow runs upwards (bottom-up) in perception and understanding, and down (top down) in production.

interactive model features:
mutual interaction of the subsystems (rejects autonomy): the higher-order processes can, through feedback, submit information to the lower-order processes.
context information is permanently accessible to any process, and can influence in any stage of processing. Character
parallel / simultaneous linguistic processes (rejects the serial character.)
Each subsystem can make use of available information, originating at higher levels, thus ease of access to lexical representations, the more influence on phonetic identification. Top-down influence. The semantic information can facilitate parsing of the sentence.

concept of modularity versus globality and its application to language processing:
Modular Architecture: The cognitive system consists of three processors:

1. sensory transduction systems, which convert physical energy into mental representations.
2. entry systems or modules, which are special-purpose processors, whose function is to obtain a representation of the distal stimuli from the information of the transducers.
3. central systems or general purpose, that integrate information from the modules and perform intelligent tasks such as fixation of belief, inference, reasoning, decision-making.

Advantages of modularity: Economy

1. Cognitive modules operations take place automatically, so you have low cognitive load, allowing more resources to other activities.
2. "Accident": While an abnormal operating module does not affect other modules.

Modular System features:

1. domain specificity (range): each system uses modular specific information not shared with other modular systems, nor central systems. Encapsulation
2. information: each modular system performs the operations that are entrusted with complete independence from other systems (modular or core), without influence from them.
3. Mandatory: modular systems work on a mandatory basis, ie not mediated by automatic or voluntary processes, once they receive an appropriate stimulus input.
4. Speed: modules operate at a speed exceeding that of other cognitive systems, as they apply to very limited information analysis (eccentric) and do not get influenced by others. Superficiality
5. computer: representations of output modules are incomplete characterization of the stimuli that the cognitive system recognizes and identifies or full survey is carried out only in the central systems.
6. Innatism: systems exhibit a peculiar pattern of ontogenetic development, as determined by biological maturation. This development is displayed independent of other core capabilities.
7. neural Compactness: the modular systems are physically carried in a fixed neural architecture, located in the brain and composed of circuits and neural connections invariant. Guidelines
8. impairment: abnormalities of the modules have a specific and selective, unlike the central systems. Within a module, these changes may affect some components and not others.

Notion of horizontal faculties: the subject performs different operations on the information it receives, regardless of their nature. Thus, some operations such as attention, perception, imagination or memory is made regardless of sensory modality.
Global Architecture: understand the mind as a processing unit. Anderson draws a functional map of faculties such as attention, perception, memory, etc., Applied to all kinds of information the system uses. Anderson's arguments in favor of the unitary character:

1. Genetic: Part of our intelligent capabilities (language, etc.) Are complex skills are acquired through experience. Thus, there is no consideration of special powers. Ontogenetic
2. : humans we show great plasticity in acquiring these skills, which means they can not be preset in the architecture of our minds. Structural
3. : cognitive skills have many properties in common, indicating a set of cognitive principles that govern both the nuclear constitution of our cognitive faculties as their mode of operation.

production systems: a rule that specifies the relationship between an antecedent and consequent or condition or action, so that the implementation of the rule requires prior satisfaction of their application status. Pairs are also called action status. Defined:

1. Condition: IF the goal is X,
2. Action: THEN the action to take is Y.

In relation to language, is seen as a case of joint operation of the entire cognitive system.
independent models could be identified with a modular and interactive models with a global concept, but this identification is not necessary for two reasons:

1. The modular concept manifests itself neutral in relation to the internal organization of the modules. Thus a modular architecture supports a characterization interactive language processes.
2. modular architecture is not incompatible with a parallel organization of threads.

The only limitation of modular systems would be the absence of contextual influence in interactive performance of each modular subsystem. Thus, if one adopts a modular view of language performance, at least the phonological decoding processes, word recognition and syntactic analysis must be preserved extralinguistic influences.
it possible to speak of two levels of definition of mental architecture:

1. macroscopic level: it distinguishes a number of cognitive abilities either in terms of the cognitive domain in which each operates (language, vision, etc.), Either other considerations (literacy, musical skills, etc.).
2. microscopic level, which analyzes the basic processing components it breaks down each faculty: the language, phonological processes, lexical, syntactic and semantic.

LINGUISTIC PROCESSES IN THE ACTIVITY OR USE OF LANGUAGE

Processes linguistic activity or use of language:
processes of language comprehension and production can be framed into three general levels: Level

1. Peripheral which includes perceptual and motor processes.
2. Intermediate: a linguistic one, covering processes lexical, syntactic and semantic.
3. central level or inference, including both linguistic and extralinguistic information.

peripheral processes:
The subject receives a physical stimulus, ie a verbal emission (a combination of acoustic cues) it is necessary to decode the identified phonemes that make up the statement, but also have to code when it issues a message. These processes and joint acoustic-phonemic.
intermediate processes:
From an abstract representation of speech sounds, the listener recognizes the lexical units that make up the statement. Lexical processes start from the semantic representations of words in memory. The recognition of words allows the listener to an analysis of syntactic structure that leads to a semantic analysis of each unit and the interpretation of the global significance of the statement.
central or inferential processes:
in the planning and interpretation of statements includes an indirect process of interpretation of verbal messages (language declarative, interrogative, ironic, etc..), Which refers to the communicative intent of the message. Thus, speech acts are interpreted the messages transmitted and through which we try to influence the mental state and behavior of the interlocutor.
Includes speech processes that allow the listener to integrate information to form a global representation of the meaning of the speech. The speaker must plan in advance the general content of the speech. This is the level of the message and inferential processes.

Basics:

• function.
• Mechanism.
• structure.
• Process (classic approach): any operation, applied on a mental state input (input), occurs as a result (output) a different mental state. This includes any activity that requires the mediation of mental representations. For example, a syntactic representation becomes another coupling conceptual semantic roles to syntactic constituents.
• Procedure.
• Scheme.
• Rule.
• Representation.
• propositional attitude: it refers to a non-literal meaning that statements include, so the listener has to interpret the speaker's communicative intent, the speech acts that convey messages and allow subjects to perform actions symbolic face to influence mental states and behavior of partners.
• Modularity.
• Serial versus parallel.

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INTRODUCTION

The language consists of public events (observable and measurable physical stimulus, composed of sounds or strokes) and private events (inferred, are representations mental meaningfully). The listener / reader has to transform physical stimuli speaking / writing that receives a representation of sounds / letters that make up the verbal issuance.
differences between the perception of oral and written language:

Spoken Language Written Language
- The sound decays with time	- No time constraints
- Speech is a continuous stimulus	- The script is divided into units, words, etc.
- affects	hearing - affects vision

Properties the human system of perception of language consistency, flexibility and automaticity
Speech perception remains constant even when certain physical properties vary stimulation (recognizable as the same sequences with different frequencies speaking, accent, etc.) showing perception system is highly flexible and adaptive, while automatic.

FUNCAMENTALES PROBLEMS IN THIS COUNTRY (PERCEPTION OF SPEECH)

perceptual constancy in the task of acoustic-phoneme conversion:
Speech perception is a process that allows the transformation of a pattern of acoustic energy into a mental representation of the configuration stimulate (phonemes and sounds) that produce that energy.
The perceptual system extracts of these changes sound a perceptive records that correspond to linguistic units (phonemes).

Physical properties of speech sounds. Spectroscopy as a technique of analysis:
The spectroscopy allows us to examine the physical properties of sounds. Lets get a visual representation of speech or spectrogram shows the frequency composition voice in time units.
Some sequences of speech sounds are decomposed into frequency bands (expressed in hertz) called formants. Constant formant formant transition (which is curved, in which the frequency value is progressively modified) and stable part of the formant (which is flat).
This technique has shown that each phoneme is not always for the same set of acoustic units, giving rise to the problem of segmentation and lack of invariance.

segmentation problem and the lack of invariance:

• Segmentation: speech signal is continuous, while sounds speech is perceived as discontinuous. For example, if a separate syllable the consonant portion of the spectrum of vocal spectrum and present the subject only the portion of the consonant, it is able to guess the vowel. Lack of invariance
• : lack of correspondence between fragments of acoustic signal and discrete phonemes. Speech segments are continuous, influenced by the acoustic context. No invariant properties, listeners nevertheless capture the perceptual records and identify the sounds. That is, no physical signal characteristics identical to the same phonemes as the context signals are different, but the listener identifies the same phoneme. Concept

co-articulatory demands of speech:
Delivering a sequence of phonemes, each phoneme is not articulated separately, but the articulation organs adjust their position to produce the phoneme before and after. For example, when pronouncing the phoneme / n / the position of the tongue is more retracted in co [n] contrast, more in touch with the alveoli in co [n] ato, and more at rest in co [n] call notice. The concept of demand
co-articulation of speech is the source of the problems of segmentation in the absence of invariance, of the inseparable presence of speech as fundamental frequency noise characteristics that sets the tone for you and the intensity of speech, and speech perception remains intact even when there is a loss of acoustic and noise effect.

BASIC PROCESSES IN THE PERCEPTION OF SPEECH

stages, based on linguistic considerations and not psychological. This poses problems:
peripheral auditory analysis: occurs decoding speech signals in the peripheral auditory system. Decoding mechanisms are of two kinds:

1. Neuroacústicos: for example, firing patterns of nerve fibers that tune with attributes of the speech signal have been present as the first consonants of the syllable / pa /, / ga /, etc..
2. Psiocacústicos: more abstract and independent of its physiological correlates. For example, band-pass filters, which perform signal processing by analyzing its components.

central auditory Analysis: The task is to extract signal a series of spectral patterns (fundamental frequency, direction, formant transitions) and temporal (time lag between events) and stored in echoic memory. The analysis of these patterns gives rise to acoustic cues that are phonemes.
acoustic-phonetic analysis: We performed a linguistic processing of the signal. It involves identifying the speech segments or phonemes. The acoustic cues are coupled to the phonetic features that are abstract representations mediating between the physical planes (acoustic) and linguistic (phonetic).

1. can discover the evidence of perception (perceptual categorization of speech), allowing us to identify discrete sounds, resolving the problems of segmentation and variability.
2. exist at this level feature detectors or a specialized neural mechanisms in the identification of phonemic distinctive features (voicing, nasality, etc..).

Phonological Analysis: phonetic features and segments identified in the previous stage are converted into abstract representations of the sounds (phonological segments) that combine to form larger units such as syllables and words.

1. At this level certain phonetic distinctions become allophonic variations of the same phoneme, explaining certain phenomena of assimilation and phonetic processing.
2. As a result of phonological analysis shows a linear sequence of phonemes, whose components are organized hierarchically: the beginning or onset (initial consonant cluster optional), rhyme or rime and coda (ending consonant optional).

problems posed by linguistic considerations stages rather than psychological:
No agreement on the psychological reality of these stages.
No agreement on the time course of the four processes and their interactions.

theoretical approaches derived from the consideration of the phonetic and phonological representation as linguistic constructs:
Some authors deny the existence of an independent level of phonetic representation, because the difficulty of finding a link between acoustic cues and phonetic segments. Choose to defer the settlement of the lack of invariance to a higher level of processing (lexical access process). This can lead to the conclusion that if we eliminate the phonetic level there will be no reason to postulate a phonological processing, as it would have no representation at that level input. It is considered that the phonetic and phonological representations play a role not psychologically necessary for processing the signal, but a posteriori, when the listener uses this information.
Others focus on the explanations that postulate the transformation itself acoustic-phonetic. These representations are not present in the speech signal, but are supplied by the recipient to information from his memory. Thus, although the processes of acoustic-phonetic processing are initially targeting signal properties (bottom-up process), also depend on the use of superior information (top-down process).

THEORIES OF ACOUSTIC-PHONETIC INTEGRATION

motor theory of speech perception (Lieberman et al.)
phonetic identification (perception signal) is performed by a specialized processing system in the perception of speech sounds than the system used in the perception of other auditory stimuli, which determines a particular processing mode (mode of speech) that tunes the auditory signals the acoustic properties and is matched to a code where the phonetic structure of language is imposed on the acoustic properties. This code is defined in terms of the properties coarticulatorias articulatory and sound. That is, there is a direct link between the systems of perception and speech production that allows the listener to determine what makes articulatory gestures the speaker and thus what produces phonetic segments. Therefore, the central idea is that speech is perceived by our tacit or unconscious knowledge of how that occurs. Description
analysis by synthesis mechanisms:
The basic mechanism of perception in this theory is the analysis by synthesis, in which the analysis refers to the process of extracting information from the signal, and synthesis processes internal signal generation from advanced acoustic cues and knowledge of the articulatory properties of sounds. This mechanism explains the problems:

1. Variability: is solved by means of interactive acoustic cues integration with discrete phonemic articulatory representations. Processing
2. overall properties of speech (higher levels of representation), and suprasegmental structure (accents, intonation, etc..) And metric (syllabification) that influence the processes of acoustic-phonetic integration.

evidence for this theory: According

1. Broadbent Ladatoped and the perceptual system adjusts to the acoustic characteristics of the emission source. Thus, judgments vary according to background information on the characteristics voice.
2. As the phenomenon of duplex perception of formant transitions, or changes in the frequency bands of sound, are used to discriminate between different phonetic categories. Thus, when the formant transition is seen as the way speech is used to identify phonemes, if not, is the subject of an acoustic analysis in the auditory system. Studio
3. babies: the listeners, including infants, use any information on the articulatory properties of speech. Visual information (image of a person speaking) interact with the hearing (acoustic signal the speaker). Effect
4. of McGurk: when a perceiving subject is presented with conflicting auditory and visual stimuli phonetically is unconsciously adopt a compromise between the two sources of stimulation. Theory

auditory speech perception:
According to this theory of speech perception requires no specialized processing system, but that speech is perceived by the same mechanisms as any other auditory stimulus. This is not a unified paradigm, but brings together a variety of models and explanations to some extent divergent.

MOTOR COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORY AND THEORY HEARING
	MOTOR THEORY THEORY
HEARING - The phonetic identification system is by way of speaking, it is specific to particular stimuli and different from other stimuli.	- The phonetic identification is carried out by general auditory mechanisms. It is not a unified paradigm, so each model can propose different mechanisms.
- The perception of speech is domain-specific and species-specific.	- rejects the idea of \u200b\u200bspeech perception and specific domain and species.
- Apply an analysis by synthesis mechanism for the removal of the signal and internally generated sounds.	- Reject the mechanics of analysis by synthesis by more analytical. Earlier processing of the signal in hearing levels.

implications of this theory:

1. There are authors for whom the speech signal is not variable, but there are invariant properties that allow a link between physical stimuli and microstructural phonemic representations.
2. Others argue that these invariant properties arise in macro-level, where the speech signal stimulates speech patterns neurosensory representing lexical forms of memory. Model

Klatt, maintaining that the invariant properties of the acoustic signal does not emerge at the microstructural level, but macro-levels, specifically at the lexical level.

1. lexical representations consist of spectral templates (the representation of an ideal sequence of acoustic cues). Half the listener receives the speech chain fragments, is computing on the go signal spectral representations (diphones). The key feature (both diphone templates as) is that it is influenced by the context. This solves the problem of lack of invariance.
2. representations do not correspond to discrete phonetic units. Thus, there is no level of representation phonetics / phonology, but the noise level has direct access to the lexical level: lexical access from spectra.

If we consider that the perception of speech is part of a set of processes aimed at the understanding of linguistic messages with meaning, the problems would be:

1. phonemic segmentation. No
2. invariance. Restriction
4. suprasegmental lexical knowledge.
5. syntactic and semantic variables.

CONTINUOUS SPEECH PERCEPTION

Due to restrictions of the coarticulation, speech is perceived continuously. It is an active process information determined by physical, linguistic and extralinguistic. This has certain consequences:
The acoustic signal processing need not be exhaustive (identifying each and every one of the lexical segments of sensory input) to access and recognition levels of words.
From phonetic levels is an interaction between the processes of phonetic segments identification from acoustic cues and lexical access from phonological representations.

Example of interaction between perceptual processes and linguistic processes

higher order:
knowledge of prosodic and phonological peculiarities of Castilian phonetic sequences, such as content words have a stressed syllable / allows the listener to anticipate sharp acoustic events.
information is likely to higher order (lexical, syntactic, semantic) also involved in the primary processes of signal analysis. In the study presented Picket Pllack and subjects of conversation fragments (words from a sentence) and asked to identify those words. Not exceed 50% of correct words. Appears because the speech signal remains unintelligible until the recipient does not have enough background information to formulate hypotheses on the pair phonological content of the message.

Three tests show the influence of the higher processes of recognition of basic mechanisms of perceptual processes:

• phoneme restoration effect: phonetic substitution unconscious material, absent from the acoustic signal, a stimulus not present in the speech signal. Restoration
• errors (tracking task), the subject unconsciously replaced erroneous speech stimuli for correct forms. It seems that this happens with both lexical and syntactic information and phonetics. Phenomenon
• selective listening: when a subject is subjected to a dichotic listening task are recorded effects caused by the material submitted by the unattended ear (the subject does not hear the meaning of the message, the message is not addressed may cause interference with the task, etc.).

Conclusions:
The speech recognition processes are open to influences from higher levels of processing (suprasegmental information-metric-prosodic, lexical, syntactic and semantic) that imposes restrictions continuous talk, and operate automatically and unconsciously.
It can not be concluded that speech perception is a process distinct from the perception of isolated sounds, but a process determined by the physical constraints of the signal and constraints of linguistic representations that are recovered at higher levels.

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Definition Of Jazz In Poetry

Language Perception and Understanding of Words Recognition

INTRODUCTION

Distinction between linguistic, phenomenological or subjective and processing in language comprehension:
phenomenological point of view: the concept of understanding is not for the mental process as it occurs suddenly, with little development effort by who understands. Does not fit with the mental state, because no extension in time and the qualities of experience.
Processing point of view: when the subject recognizes a word is in a different mental state prior to recognize it, and this new state is a consequence of linguistic performance processes time consuming susceptible target register.
Linguistic aspects: the lexical competence (knowledge of words in a language) can not be understood as a computational state of mind, but as an element of language proficiency lacks temporality.

Distinction between formal or structural features and semantic content or both of words and of sentences:
juxtaposition input representation

	Understanding words	Understanding prayers
task type	compares an external stimulus with ¬ es tructure of information represented in memory processes	Use combinatorial syntactic and semantic words to form sentence ¬ nes.
type of representation	subléxicas linguistic units (¬ fone but, syllables, morphemes)	lexical linguistic units (and subléxicas) and supraléxicas.
combinatorial processes	affix rules apply ¬ BLES sublexical elements (paradigmatic processes)	structure-dependent rules applicable to lexical items (syntagmatic processes)
	activated phonological information from ¬ GICA (segmental and metrical structure) and morphology (sublexical units)	representations are activated and lexical and sublexical elements. Representa-tions operate with output processes words.
Representation	output lexical representations (structure f or ¬ nology, morphology, semantics and non ¬ tactic)	representation of the meaning of the sentence (¬ sicional propose content and propositional attitude).
Similarities	- Require the use of combinatorial rules - Two levels of representation: STRUCTURAL level properties (in words: phonological and morphological structure, in sentences: syntactic structure) and level of semantic properties.

different meanings or senses of the notion of understanding:
understanding can be understood from a phenomenological or psycholinguistics. The latter include several levels: comprehension of words and sentences.
is also possible to understand understanding as a process (through which the subject comes to creating a representation) or as a state (which occurs after creating the representation). However, both have problems: it is subject is not aware of the process, as it arises suddenly and instantly, on the other hand, does not fit as a state, as it lacks the dimension and temporal qualities of experience associated with the states. From the psycholinguistic point of view, that the subject is not aware of the processes does not mean they do not occur, so the comprehension is a complex process, which in turn implies other threads easier.

REPRESENTATION AND PROCESSES IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF WORDS

types of information involved in this process:
stimulate or entry information: phonemes and graphemes (key acoustic phonemic features, etc.).
lexical information: must be activated in memory and compared with information from the stimulus.
Background information: linguistic (text or speech) and extralinguistic (environment or memory).

word recognition process:
The word recognition results from a coupling process. Thus, sensory input activates the knowledge stored in memory. There is a link sensory input to a lexical entry or knowledge stored in memory.

Basic questions that arise in the recognition lexicon:
What the listener recognizes meaningful units language (morphemes, words) present in the phonological representation of a sentence? Is mapped sensory input with some knowledge stored in memory or mental dictionary (lexical identification.)
What kind of information about the words of the language we have stored in memory and how that information is organized? How
input representation that triggers the process of word recognition, ie what are the units used in perceptual identification of words in a sentence?
What is the nature of the activation process (ratio of represenaciones input lexicon and internal representations of the lexicon)?

nature of lexical representations stored in memory. Basic elements of representation:
The knowledge that every speaker / listener has about the words of their language can be characterized as a network of lexical entries with certain properties or elements. Each includes the elements:

1. phonological representation, which specifies the segmental structure of the word (sequence of phonemes with their distinctive features), organized perhaps syllabic units and a stress pattern. Representation
2. spelling: made by a sequence of characters with visual features. Representation
3. Morphological structure derived from the lexical entry and, in some cases, its grammatical category.
4. syntactic representation: sets the grammatical category of the lexical entry and its subcategorization frame, ie the structural contexts that can occur.
5. Semantic representation: semantic primitive features added or a statement-definition as a dictionary.
6. List of terms and concepts related to the lexical entry for its meaning. Issue

raised the access code and segmentation processes:
How is the representation of input that activates the process of word recognition, ie what are the units used in perceptual identification of words in a sentence? Mental lexical access is driven by the initial portion of the word carries the most relevant information. So are several hypotheses about the identity of lexical access code:

1. Existence of an abstract representation and shallow (phonological or spelling) that facilitates the activation of the recognition processes
2. access Existence of representations in word recognition, although they may differ from other words in terms of certain properties of the lexical entry in question.
3. The last option does not posit representations. The recognition occurs directly between sensory input and the lexical entry. Lexical processes operate by accumulation of acoustic and contextual memory activated lexical representations. Here the problem of lack of invariance is moved to the lexical level of processing.

segmentation processes:
All models that postulate an access code explain their production under a segmentation process sensory input into discrete linguistic units. Stressing the syllable segmentation unit as the access code. This phenomenon is related to certain features of the language. Empirical evidence:
The time spent on detecting a sequence CV (Consonant Vowel) was lower if the sequence was a syllable of the word that was part if was for another word. Languages \u200b\u200bwith regular syllabic structure facilitate the use of the syllable as the access code, while languages \u200b\u200bwith irregular syllabic structure ignored. Operations
word recognition: initial lexicon
Contact: Reception sound wave (or visual stimulus) and converted into representations that can be coupled to internal representations of the lexicon (the set of possible lexical candidates called initial cohort of words). Activation
: initial vocabulary due to contact changes occur (activation) in the state of those lexical entries that correspond to the representation derived from the analysis of sensory input.
Selection (reverse of activation) . Different models of this process:

According to McClelland and Rumelhart
1. selection was checked by differential activation of candidate forming the initial cohort. Thus, as sensory information is accumulated, the candidates are receiving inconsistent with this inhibitory signals, which reduces the level of activation. According
2. Marslen-Wilson, the selection is a progressive decrease in the size of the cohort of candidates. So the rejected candidates are eliminated until sun is one. According
3. Forster and Bednall is an exhaustive search process of candidates through a list of lexical entries sorted by frequency of use, so the candidates will be located more frequent before less frequent.

Recognition : shows the exact moment that the word is identified unequivocally. Is determined by the physical properties of stimuli, intrinsic properties and number of competitors that has the word in the mental lexicon.

1. interactive model (connections), reflecting ongoing changes in the activation of representations at the time of word recognition. Model
2. self: The word recognition is complete when the system establishes a reliable correspondence between the stimulating signal and its corresponding lexical entry.

lexical access: allows the properties of lexical representations which has not been accessed are made available to language understanding system for later use. Models

1. self (two stages): the syntactic information, semantic and pragmatic about the words only made available once they have been recognized under its formal properties.
2. Interactive models (one step): The information is activated simultaneously with the formal description of the lexical entry, ie, as soon as contact is made initial lexicon. So access to semantic and pragmatic properties can occur before the subject had identified the word

METHODS STUDY OF THE UNDERSTANDING OF WORDS AND DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR EFFECTS REGISTERED

word recognition is not directly observable, therefore indirect procedures should be designed based on the log time spent by listeners in language identification tasks. This time spent showing the complexity of the processes.

1. on-line tasks: o work in progress. Possible to examine the underlying processes simultaneously, in real time.
2. off-line tasks, or tasks off course. Collect responses to further delay the implementation processes. Procedures

timing of word recognition:
off-line procedures:

1. taquistocópica id: presentation of sequences of letters, with periods of exposure to be increased, in order to observe the identification threshold for different stimuli. The main drawback is that it facilitates the involvement of all kinds of strategies reconstruction post-stimulus perceptual line with expectations of control.
2. lexical decision: quick presentation of a sequence of letters that the subject has to classify as words or no words. It is assumed that the subject must consult the mental lexicon in order to decide whether the presented stimulus is represented in it. The total time minus the time of the motor response preparation and execution. This task has not been eradicated as post-lexical effects of response, because it is a decisional manders in kind.
3. Procedure name: it seeks to reduce the need to make decisions (avoid post-response effects.) Consists pronounce loudly and quickly visually presented verbal stimuli by recording the TR. It is assumed that the time needed to deliver the stimulus is determined by the availability of lexical representations corresponding to the input sensory. Hopefully advantage of words over non-words and the words most frequently on the less frequent.

Procedures On-line:

Detection of stimuli: a variant of decision tasks. The subject's task is to answer each time you identify a stimulus language (phoneme, syllable, word). The detection time is interpreted as reflecting the cognitive work that the system performs at the time of detection. It is useful in:

1. Studies on the nature of the representations of lexical access. Studies
2. recognition of ambiguous words in context.

Examples of main experimental effects:
frequency of use of the words:

1. more familiar words are recognized faster than the less familiar.
2. less frequent words have higher lexical decision latencies, and take longer to be named. Both effects are constant. The magnitude of the effect is smaller on naming tasks than on lexical decision task.
3. hypothesis is warranted access two independent mechanisms: RP content by activation processes, sorting and searching, and functional RP by parsing process. Data support this hypothesis:
• Bradley noted that the frequency effect only affects the open-class lexical items (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and not the closed class (prepositions, articles, conjunctions).
• The observation that agrammatic patients who suffer a selective alteration of syntactic processing do not show differential sensitivity of open and closed vocabularies, both types to be affected by frequency.

nonwords versus words:

1. time it takes to accept stimuli as words is less than the invested in rejecting stimuli categorized as non-words, even if infrequent compared with non-words words.
2. A word does not take longer to be denied the greater its resemblance to a word, because this similarity interference generated in the system of recognition.
3. Time spent in rejecting sequences of letters that do not meet the restrictions phonological and orthographic (no resemblance to the words) is shorter than the RP of common words. This is considered an indication that the subject makes a search in their internal lexicon that ends in failure.
4. interference effect: the effect derived word - no word. This is an increase in response latency no words whose initial portion is a real word. Is explained by a response bias induced by the presence in the non-word, a lexical item that leads to creating a false alarm.

priming effect:
The presentation of certain lexical stimuli (primes) prior to a critical word easy / difficult to recognize (priming effect), provided they have a relationship with them. Always on actual words. The most frequent priming effects are

1. Priming of repetition is decreased response latency of a word when it is filed earlier in the same list and same sentence.
2. semantic priming: reduced response latency when the word used as prime is a lexical item of similar meaning to the word critical.
3. contextual priming: reduced response latency when the fragment of the sentence preceding the critical word about words exerts excitatory effects predictable and appropriate to that context.

The priming effect has been the subject of conflicting explanations for the different patterns of RP: Model

1. self: Foster favors intraléxica explanation, that the presentation of the inducing stimulus (prime) in the repetition priming originates opening of lexical representation in memory. In presenting the same word as a stimulus critical lexical entry corresponding to the critical word is already open in the repetition priming, and will be verified through partnerships between lexical entries belonging to the same semantic field in semantic priming, which also facilitates the RP, even if the word is absent from the context. Model
2. Interactive Marslen-Wilson Morton and interpret the priming effect in terms of the influence of extraléxicos in word processing, especially supraléxicas representations (semantic, pragmatic) that have a top-down influence on the RP.

ambiguity (or polysemy) lexical: Refers to
expressions with a single structural representation / formal (phonological and syntactic words in sentences) and more than a representation of meaning. When we receive an ambiguous word occurs mental representation of all possible meanings of that term. Usually the context to determine the proper meaning. When asked how does the context there are two explanations:

1. The defending a shortcut, guided by the context, the proper meaning of the ambiguous word, so that the other meanings are neither activated. Experimental evidence for:
   • lexical priming studies / contextual: the subjects do not detect an ambiguity Lexical disambiguation in context. This identification does not occur if the proper meaning of the word is the most common. Studies
   • judgments of ambiguity: decision latency is reduced when the word is preceded in the list, an ambiguous word that has been primed with a related meaning don the critical word, whereas if the priming facilitated increased significance ambiguous word alternative.
2. Those who advocate a multiple access all meanings of the word, moving the disambiguation of context effect until a post-lexical interpretation.
• Data for unsatisfactory because to be based on off-line procedures, they can only reveal what happens after the recognition, not during it. It does seem that the context exerts a desambiguante, or post-lexical influence (comes after RP ambiguous on the subject with all possible meanings.
• Foss and Jenkins observed that when the critical phoneme followed an ambiguous word latency increased detection compared to a control condition with no ambiguous words. This was a modal priming experiment with lexical decision task and naming. Results: When the task is performed after the ambiguous word, all the meanings of it were equally accessible, even in contexts biased. If the task takes between 700/800 msec., The latency decreased. He concludes that the disambiguation of context effect appears only after a short delay, during which there is a fast, automatic and unconscious, guided by the structure of all the meanings of the word.

WORD RECOGNITION MODELS

What distinguishes the various models is the degree of encapsulation or isolation computational RP processes. Interactive models
lexical processing:
postulate an early influx supraléxicas representations (semantic and pragmatic) on word identification processes, along with perceptual representation of the signal. Lolog
Morton Model:

1. Shortcut (rejects the division into stages) and interactive (supports parallel access RP system to multiple sources of sensory information, syntax, semantics and from the context.)
2. Each word is represented in a Lolog mental lexicon, a device sensitive to certain types of information that passively records the relevant characteristics of each lexical item. Receives information from every sensory input (noise, graph) and context (syntactic, semantic) and accumulates until it reaches a saturation point or optimal level of arousal that triggers the Lolog and the word is recognized.
3. logogenes system receives information from two sources: first sound and graphics from sensory input, and other syntactic and semantic information from the linguistic context of the cognitive system.
4. Moreover there are three systems: logogenes visual input (encoding based information), the logogenes auditory input (encoding phonological information) and the output logogenes (responsible for the oral production and written). Due to the strict separation between systems logogenes visual and auditory input, the model allows no influence of phonological representations in visual recognition, or the spelling in auditory recognition of words, which is opposed to certain tests of the possible interference of certain phonological tasks on visual word processing. Models
self

They rely on the existence of a series of processes designed to retrieve lexical entries, which run from perceptual representations (acoustic, phonological, orthographic) and the contextual variables that influence higher order.
search model (Forster): Two stages of lexical identification operations:

1. Stage 1: the recovery process of the form is made a comparison of the perceptual representation of stimulus with phonological and orthographic representation. Takes place in the peripheral storage (which may be of several types: checker for visual cues, auditory phonological and semantic to enter for the production of words) that contains a list of lexical entries (ordered from highest to lowest frequency of use and contains specification of the phonological structure and spelling of each word) and access codes the initial lexicon contact)
2. Stage 2: Processes of meaning recovery: the comparison process verified by a serial and exhaustive search of the lexical entry in peripheral files, it proceeds to the central file, depicting the syntactic and semantics of words. Findings appear post-access processes that confirm the selection of the lexical entry and made available to the following language comprehension processes.

search mechanism Forster model accounts for all experimental effects mentioned:

1. frequency effect: it explains Under the management of the lexical entries in the peripheral file (compartments of entries with the same code lexicon), where the most common positions prior to the least frequent. Thus, a more common word is located before another less common.
2. words versus non-words is due to a thorough and fruitless search in the archives peripherals, because the absence of non-words in them they take longer to be rejected.
3. contextual priming effect: obey connections between semantic representations of lexical entries in the central file. Priming in the lexicon, access to the prime word takes place through the peripheral file, the frequency controlled, and access to the target word would be controlled by the central file. Mixed models

comprehension of words:
Situated halfway between autonomous and interactive models, postulates an autonomous initial phase and a later in which there is interaction between different kinds of information. Cohort Model
Mars-Wilson:
Apply two stages in series, an interactive self and other:

Autonomous
1. : active simultaneously a finite set - or cohort - of lexical candidates, and is based solely acoustic-phonetic properties of sensory input.
2. Interactive: select the best candidate by disabling both candidates incompatible sensory input as to the context. Thus, reducing the initial cohort of candidates to be activated a lexical entry only.

A determining factor is the uniqueness or optimum point of recognition, from which the candidate is chosen lexical discrimination of the remaining candidates neighbors of the initial cohort. This section defines the maximum duration of the stage (autonomous) initial acoustic-phonetic.
The model has two drawbacks:

1. Difficulty to account for the effect of frequency. The solution to incorporate the notion of activation to explain why two words that share the same optimal point are identified at different times (most frequently identified earlier).
2. inability to explain the recovery of errors. If a perceptual error or pronunciation to affect the initial portion of a word, no progress can be corrected, since the initial cohort of candidates will only contain words that start with the wrong sequence. The solution involves the activation of elements selected from the original cohort based on global acoustic similarity, allowing locate the correct lexical representation.

SOME REFLECTIONS ON THE AUTONOMY OF LEXICAL PROCESSING

• Of the various studies show that the understanding of words functions as an autonomous system for processing at least in the early stages, ie as a cognitive module specific purpose which is free from the influence of higher-level information (linguistic and extralinguistic) and employs phonological and lexical information (perceptual representations and internal reporting system.) This allows you to segregate the lexical knowledge in other types of non-linguistic knowledge.
• seems that the context has more influence on the comprehension of spoken language, due to time constraints of this and because of the degraded stimulus suffers in comparison with written language. In relation to the identification of words, different context produce different effects:

The paradigmatic context is built using semantic association between words. Is explained by the independent models, they proposed a network of internal connections to the lexicon that can facilitate / inhibit the recovery of semantic representations of words. This is the case in search patterns that distinguish the organization peripheral files listed as separate lexical entries, the organization of the central file in a network of concepts.
The semantic context created by the syntactic structures and semantics of the sentence. Explained by the interactive methods that allow an early influx of information supraléxica (representations of sentences) for RP processes.
hoped that the linguistic context (syntagmatic and paradigmatic) imposes restrictions different from the understanding of words than those that impose extra-linguistic contexts (physical, social, etc.) That are held on regular communication exchanges.

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