INTRODUCTION
Is a level in its own right?
need to differentiate a different self-psychological level of vocabulary and sentence in language comprehension and production. This level would be the text or speech. Has own properties and laws of composition.
vocabulary and sentence level provide a partial picture of language comprehension, which define how the psychological construct of language elements, but not its products. Hence the need to differentiate a new self-psychological level, a level of discourse: text or speech. Problem
the linguistic or purely psychological processes involved in this level:
- is required to differentiate a new self-psychological level, a discursive level. Language comprehension level includes suprasentential, with specific properties and compositional own laws: the discourse is defined by the coherence that depends only on the form and meaning of the prayers that comprise it also results from processes that allow the transmission molars of intent, which structurally exceed the level of sentences. The speech comprehension processes involved make a strong inferential processes are not only decoding.
- speech understanding requires a decoding process (of linguistic nature) and an inferential process (of a psychological nature).
- Any unit of discourse is derived from a compromise between the tacit and explicit, as in the speech does not always make explicit all the ideas necessary for understanding.
conceptual dependency theory of Shank: basic assumptions.
The basic assumption is that the process of understanding is guided by highly abstract entities, propositional or conceptual in nature (called conceptualizations), whose core are the primitive concepts. They also include scripts, goals and plans. Common conceptualizations to sentences synonymous and include no explicit ideas in the speech, but necessary for their understanding. Can be:
- In Action (whose general form is: Actor-Action-Object-Address). They are primitive concepts.
- of state (whose general form is: Object-State)
acts are primitive or ultimate principles on which decompose lexical items. Can be understood as semantic primitives that are included in the meaning of verbs. These categories are not verbs, but last components of the action.
Notation:
- ATRANS: Transfers a relationship or possession
- MTRANS: Information object
- MOVE: Move a body part
- SPEAK: Make sounds
- Attend: Attending to a stimulus
- PTRANS: Physical location of an object
- PROPEL: Apply a force on
- object INGEST / EXPEL: To enter / leave some
- MBUILD: Develop
concepts: scripts, goals, plans,
conceptual primitives are not sufficient to ensure an understanding of simple units of speech, so take the scripts (or representations of knowledge in the long-term episodic memory about courses of action that occur in everyday situations). Since scripts are also insufficient, we use goals and plans, as the nature of intentions and their relationships largely determine the course of understanding.
failure of a purely conceptual approach to understanding the speech: There
- purely linguistic phenomena such as anaphoric reference that go beyond sentence boundaries and require a level of discourse analysis. It is unclear
- that the speech involves a massive predominance of top-down mechanisms are purely conceptual. It is more understandable a model where the level of discourse is the link between language-specific mechanisms (such as allowing processing sentence syntax) and global systems of thought (which are based on general procedures of inferences and general knowledge bases on the world that are represented in the cognitive system).
- To understand is not enough to know the language (you must also use a wide range of knowledge and ideas shared on the world), but that does not mean "just language skills necessary for understanding.
What is remembered for a speech is the meaning organized in semantic memory by means of propositions and ideas, not sparing the way language, which evaporates quickly.
memory characteristics of the speech appeared to reflect the existence of different memories for the explicit linguistic form and meaning.
cognitive research on memory have established for the long-term memory is organized in terms of meanings. The remaining representation not identified with the linguistic form, but admits synonymous sentences, which brings us to a more abstract code (the proposals or ideas).
This feature of the memory of the speech is based on research on:
- Recognition of sentences: subjects identified as synonymous sentences presented. Confidence in recognition increases if the sentence contains a greater number of ideas that were in the previous list, although the test sentences were not present in this list.
- format recognition: subjects often fail to recognize if an idea has been presented as an image or prayer, and also to treat to identify the language in which it was submitted (in bilingual subjects).
characteristics and properties:
Propositions are abstract functional units of meaning, of a mental language that is not composed of mental images or sentences (are amodal or supramodal), or identify with the language, but allows it to have meaningful and computable. The proposals involve a minimum of preaching something (a property, action, relationship, etc.) About something (an object, argument, etc.). Properties:
- knowledge units
- analytical in nature have an abstract nature
- possess truth value
- rules are defined by explicit training
| Schank | Kintsch | |
| external differences or notational representation | Estrutural | Representation: parentheses and letters |
| Substantive differences | Primitive semantic concepts are the same size as the words | |
| Method Simulation Model (IA) | experimental model |
basic ideas Kintsch model: surface
Text: The text facing the reader / listener and is composed of words and sentences. Text
base: It consists of ideas, concepts and propositions, constitutes a representation made in understanding processes, taking as starting the text area, and serves to make it into production processes.
Predicate and argument: The components of the proposition. The predicate is an element that says some of / the argument / s. Similarly, arguments can maintain different relationships with the predicate (agent, object). The words-concepts can be used either as arguments or predicates, according to the lexicon. Microstructure of the base text
: This refers to relations between propositions that share common grounds, according to a recurrence rule that determines the consistency. It is a hierarchical network of propositions, whose relevant psychological level is a function of holding the proposition. Model
situation: Refers to a non-textual level of analysis, consisting of inferences. It is built using the knowledge base text and therefore it can be inferred are not propositions, but links.
Event of referential coherence. Repetition of arguments rule
The assumption of referential coherence means that the propositions share the same referents, concepts and arguments. Define the microstructure of the base text.
The repetition of arguments rule states that the arguments that are repeated are identical, unless otherwise noted, and can sort the propositions of the text objectively base, assigning them to different hierarchical levels.
The assumption of referential coherence means that the propositions share the same referents, concepts and arguments. Define the microstructure of the base text.
The repetition of arguments rule states that the arguments that are repeated are identical, unless otherwise noted, and can sort the propositions of the text objectively base, assigning them to different hierarchical levels.
VALUE PROPOSITION UNITS AS PSYCHOLOGICAL
refers to the ability of the propositions to predict or simulate the behavior, to explain something that would be impossible without them.
experimental paradigms that reveal:
cued recall:
words corresponding to concepts of the same unit propositional memory keys are more effective than those that refer to different propositional units, even when the distance of the first surface in the text is larger than the latter.
free recall:
propositional units tend to remember complete (as a whole), irrespective of their familiarity or semantic plausibility.
Facilitation by priming in recognition tasks:
The facilitation effect is greater when the priming word and the recognized word belonged to the same proposition, and less when they belonged to different propositions, even if they were part of the same sentence. Tracking
words of sentences presented at a rapid rate constant:
Subjects repeated words in sentences of a single proposition in other multiple. We show that the processing of the proposals interfere with the monitoring task. Research
with time delay:
We show that the propositions are encoded in the process of understanding, and few subjects recalled more propositions, the higher their reading time. This time also appears to increase as the number of new concepts.
With the moving window technique has been shown that the number of propositions does not influence the time to read every word.
Evidence converged on free recall experiments, priming in recognition, tracking and reading time is a sufficient basis to sustain the idea that propositions are psycholinguistic processing units involved in word comprehension and retention. The results of the moving window are not sufficient to deny these results.
cued recall:
words corresponding to concepts of the same unit propositional memory keys are more effective than those that refer to different propositional units, even when the distance of the first surface in the text is larger than the latter.
free recall:
propositional units tend to remember complete (as a whole), irrespective of their familiarity or semantic plausibility.
Facilitation by priming in recognition tasks:
The facilitation effect is greater when the priming word and the recognized word belonged to the same proposition, and less when they belonged to different propositions, even if they were part of the same sentence. Tracking
words of sentences presented at a rapid rate constant:
Subjects repeated words in sentences of a single proposition in other multiple. We show that the processing of the proposals interfere with the monitoring task. Research
with time delay:
We show that the propositions are encoded in the process of understanding, and few subjects recalled more propositions, the higher their reading time. This time also appears to increase as the number of new concepts.
With the moving window technique has been shown that the number of propositions does not influence the time to read every word.
Evidence converged on free recall experiments, priming in recognition, tracking and reading time is a sufficient basis to sustain the idea that propositions are psycholinguistic processing units involved in word comprehension and retention. The results of the moving window are not sufficient to deny these results.
The effect of levels: (not specified in the guide)
propositions and ideas contained in a text does not remember all alike, and may not be processed at the same depth or attention. It has been demonstrated in studies of reading time, where the memory depended on their level in the propositional hierarchy based texts. The memory goes from 90% at level 1 to 60% at level 5.
There are divergences in the theoretical interpretation of the effect of levels:
propositions and ideas contained in a text does not remember all alike, and may not be processed at the same depth or attention. It has been demonstrated in studies of reading time, where the memory depended on their level in the propositional hierarchy based texts. The memory goes from 90% at level 1 to 60% at level 5.
There are divergences in the theoretical interpretation of the effect of levels:
- representational accessibility hypothesis: The above ideas are remembered better because their mental representations figure prominently in the memory (hierarchy), and are more accessible to be better integrated into the structures of memory in use need to understand the text.
- inferential reconstruction hypothesis, may explain part of the effect of memory levels because the meaning is an essentially reconstructive. However, the inferential processes involved in understanding also influence as evidenced by the fact that false alarms in the recognition does not necessarily imply higher response times.
Throughout the process of understanding, people do more than codify proposals also make them a conceptual structure. Made an active process that can build worlds of ideas consistent with different weights and paper. Developed a macro that involves abstraction functions (IFFERENCES) that allow an understanding beyond the explicit text.
Concepts local and global consistency. Macrorules and their types:
global coherence refers to the relationships established within a text and refer to an issue referred to the whole speech. Are superior to local coherence relations in the global units of meaning to which it embodies are irreducible to more molecular, and semantic features, the microproposiciones or lexemes.
local coherence refers to the connection between propositions by argument. Here are surface-related proposals, but the local consistency does not imply a coherent text.
macrorules and their types: semantic projection rules are linking lower-level propositions (microproposiciones or ideas expressed in the text) with other higher-level (macropropositions or ideas that capture their essential content.) Thus, derive the overall meaning of a discourse based on the meanings of the sentences it contains. Three types:
proposition is the highest level in the hierarchy of the macro, which allows a better understanding (activate appropriate schemas and scripts), integration (organizing and integrating the ideas of the text) I remember the speech. The thematic importance is reflected in indices such as:
global coherence refers to the relationships established within a text and refer to an issue referred to the whole speech. Are superior to local coherence relations in the global units of meaning to which it embodies are irreducible to more molecular, and semantic features, the microproposiciones or lexemes.
local coherence refers to the connection between propositions by argument. Here are surface-related proposals, but the local consistency does not imply a coherent text.
macrorules and their types: semantic projection rules are linking lower-level propositions (microproposiciones or ideas expressed in the text) with other higher-level (macropropositions or ideas that capture their essential content.) Thus, derive the overall meaning of a discourse based on the meanings of the sentences it contains. Three types:
- Deletion: Given a sequence of propositions, eliminating those that do not constitute conditions for the interpretation of other propositions. These are the lowest level of the propositional structure of the text which is not incorporated into the macrostructure.
- generalization: given a sequence propositions, they can be replaced by a more general, that include and reflect in its most general sense.
- Construction: sequences of propositions which are conditions or consequences of a more global components can be replaced by this.
proposition is the highest level in the hierarchy of the macro, which allows a better understanding (activate appropriate schemas and scripts), integration (organizing and integrating the ideas of the text) I remember the speech. The thematic importance is reflected in indices such as:
- Connectivity: the number of connections that every proposition has with others in the text base. Thus, the relevance of a proposition depends on the number of connections made with others.
- Membership: in the speech there are ideas that are inserted (belong) in a general framework for relations with central and other points which continues the chain is not rational.
What are
Refer to the organization of knowledge. Cognitive structures are generic high-level, hierarchical and interconnected, which contains knowledge prototypes.
Refer to the organization of knowledge. Cognitive structures are generic high-level, hierarchical and interconnected, which contains knowledge prototypes.
formal and psychological properties:
As formal property, more molecular patterns are integrated into more molar, forming an inclusive structure of the cognitive system.
As psychological ownership, they are structures that organize all human knowledge.
As formal property, more molecular patterns are integrated into more molar, forming an inclusive structure of the cognitive system.
As psychological ownership, they are structures that organize all human knowledge.
How active in the processing (comprehension and recall):
act as essential tools of inference, to contain pre-stored relations and specific variables, which could explain the tacit nature of the propositions involved in understanding.
act as essential tools of inference, to contain pre-stored relations and specific variables, which could explain the tacit nature of the propositions involved in understanding.
specific features of them:
Integration and word processing, facilitation of inferences and predictions, and selection and control of information.
Integration and word processing, facilitation of inferences and predictions, and selection and control of information.
schema types:
The schemes studied are more situational or hyphens. These are packets of information concerning stereotyped sequence of actions related by contiguity and causation.
Other schemes include schemes or frameworks of perception, situational, social, abstract domain, self, etc.
The schemes studied are more situational or hyphens. These are packets of information concerning stereotyped sequence of actions related by contiguity and causation.
Other schemes include schemes or frameworks of perception, situational, social, abstract domain, self, etc.
both theoretical and empirical difficulties schemes:
The theoretical finding that may be inflexible. Understanding is more versatile than suggested by a rigid application of schemes on stereotyped sequence of events, such as those represented by the classic scripts.
The empirical finding that it is possible to understand speech and texts that do not correspond with any script stored in memory. This does not invalidate the notion of script, always recognizing that the scripts are not sufficient for understanding, need general rules of inference.
The theoretical finding that may be inflexible. Understanding is more versatile than suggested by a rigid application of schemes on stereotyped sequence of events, such as those represented by the classic scripts.
The empirical finding that it is possible to understand speech and texts that do not correspond with any script stored in memory. This does not invalidate the notion of script, always recognizing that the scripts are not sufficient for understanding, need general rules of inference.
Alternative Proposals:
According to Rumelhart et al., The solution to the inflexibility comes to consider schemes such as network configurations, which instaciarán to achieve stable states, in accordance with principles of balance inherent in connectionist networks. These networks would have a greater degree of flexibility that the classical and the appearance of inflexibility of these, would be an illusory effect of the classical psychological perspective.
According to Kintsch, the speech depends much more bottom-up mechanisms than assumed by classical models of schemes. Thus, discourse processing the first phase would involve bottom-up activation of word meanings, and automatic recall of propositions and inferences, which in a second phase would be selected and refined based on the context the first phase activator (similar to the independent model).
According to Rumelhart et al., The solution to the inflexibility comes to consider schemes such as network configurations, which instaciarán to achieve stable states, in accordance with principles of balance inherent in connectionist networks. These networks would have a greater degree of flexibility that the classical and the appearance of inflexibility of these, would be an illusory effect of the classical psychological perspective.
According to Kintsch, the speech depends much more bottom-up mechanisms than assumed by classical models of schemes. Thus, discourse processing the first phase would involve bottom-up activation of word meanings, and automatic recall of propositions and inferences, which in a second phase would be selected and refined based on the context the first phase activator (similar to the independent model).
MENTAL MODELS
Definition:
Representation of situations to which the speech refers to (the referent) and not the representation of the discourse itself. Are reference models that can take the stage name, mental model, situation model, etc.
Features:
are dynamic representations, which are transformed and developed over comprehension process.
possess some degree of structural similarity with their referents (as opposed to propositions).
preserve, in its forms and relationships, aspects and relations determined by the worlds they represent (phenomenological questions about his character and equality with mental images). Specify
objects, events, characters who are active and accessible in memory and guide the processing of speech.
are dynamic representations, which are transformed and developed over comprehension process.
possess some degree of structural similarity with their referents (as opposed to propositions).
preserve, in its forms and relationships, aspects and relations determined by the worlds they represent (phenomenological questions about his character and equality with mental images). Specify
objects, events, characters who are active and accessible in memory and guide the processing of speech.
Forms action / processing of mental models and scenarios:
When we understand a text or discourse, as soon as possible to build some mental scenarios of situations defined by these units larger language. The initial scenarios define the further processing of the speech, and this allows a more precise definition and complete the scenarios or mental models.
When we understand a text or discourse, as soon as possible to build some mental scenarios of situations defined by these units larger language. The initial scenarios define the further processing of the speech, and this allows a more precise definition and complete the scenarios or mental models.
Differences propositional theories:
theory of mental models (= interactive)
Little development of the notion of mental model. Thus, one can only characterize as a "good feeling.
not always possible to establish a precise demarcation on the idea of \u200b\u200bscheme, and the representational nature of mental models is uncertain.
not allow a clear definition of its primitive representations, or code that are represented (images or not), or the importance of phenomenological expression.
not define precise cognitive models, ie, with sufficient computational definition, allowing a step by step explanation of the microgenesis of discourse comprehension.
theory of mental models (= interactive)
- Similar to how the proposed interactive model of context for early intervention in the processes of lexical retrieval, mental models suggest that the understanding of discourse, certain representations made early referential (the scenarios and models) are involved from the initial stages of processing (question the linguistic level of understanding).
- properly linguistic challenge the view that the level of text comprehension.
- propose the formation first of a microstructure, defined by local coherence relations between microproposiciones and after a tour of the microstructure macrostructure and general knowledge about the speech (discourse grammar) and about the world (frames, schemas, scripts).
- affirm the need for proper textual processes (construction of micro and macro). Reviews
Little development of the notion of mental model. Thus, one can only characterize as a "good feeling.
not always possible to establish a precise demarcation on the idea of \u200b\u200bscheme, and the representational nature of mental models is uncertain.
not allow a clear definition of its primitive representations, or code that are represented (images or not), or the importance of phenomenological expression.
not define precise cognitive models, ie, with sufficient computational definition, allowing a step by step explanation of the microgenesis of discourse comprehension.
Tests for intervention in the early stages of processing:
theoretical level these models could explain and reinterpret phenomena such as coreference (discourse expressions refer to the same type of situation), overall consistency (also defined in the model of the situation and not only at the level of discourse) and perspective (defined models and perspectives vary depending on the perspective from which to build).
At the empirical level, there is evidence that certain discursive inferences are guided by scenarios, and become more difficult as involve the modification of one's own mental models, or the incorporation of information that is difficult to reconcile with them.
theoretical level these models could explain and reinterpret phenomena such as coreference (discourse expressions refer to the same type of situation), overall consistency (also defined in the model of the situation and not only at the level of discourse) and perspective (defined models and perspectives vary depending on the perspective from which to build).
At the empirical level, there is evidence that certain discursive inferences are guided by scenarios, and become more difficult as involve the modification of one's own mental models, or the incorporation of information that is difficult to reconcile with them.
INFERENCES AND TEXTUAL DISCOURSE
Commitment enters the encoded information and the inferred discourse comprehension:
Any text or speech can be conceived as a sort of compromise between a set of encoded information and another set inferable, so that textual and discursive units do not usually make explicit all the information that is necessary for understanding.
Any text or speech can be conceived as a sort of compromise between a set of encoded information and another set inferable, so that textual and discursive units do not usually make explicit all the information that is necessary for understanding.
basic dichotomies around which is organized research in this field and problems of each: Separation of researchers
modularity of interactive-contextual. Involves the distinction between perceptual and cognitive inferences.
text-based theories versus theories based on mental models.
between comprehension and memory, which would match that is between early and advanced stages of understanding.
modularity of interactive-contextual. Involves the distinction between perceptual and cognitive inferences.
text-based theories versus theories based on mental models.
between comprehension and memory, which would match that is between early and advanced stages of understanding.
perceptual and cognitive inferences. Types of cognitive, perceptual
inferences are encapsulated, automatic and very fast. Are a subset of the inferences involved in establishing coreference for language comprehension. Limited to determine the reference of anaphoric elements explicit or implicit in the speech.
cognitive inferences involved in a second phase mental computational speech processing in the task of integration, beyond the identification of anaphoric ties. Their types are required and elective or elaborative.
inferences are encapsulated, automatic and very fast. Are a subset of the inferences involved in establishing coreference for language comprehension. Limited to determine the reference of anaphoric elements explicit or implicit in the speech.
cognitive inferences involved in a second phase mental computational speech processing in the task of integration, beyond the identification of anaphoric ties. Their types are required and elective or elaborative.
necessary inferences (inferences bridge, retrospective or implicatures). Features:
necessary inferences are essential to link the linguistic unit to another unit before. The necessary inferences are also called bridging inferences: necessary to establish a bridge between the first and second sentence. In the literature, logic and language are also called implicatures (the bridge involves propositions and even causal inferences). Dato bridge inferences imply a reference to a linguistic unit above, have also been called retrospective.
Features:
are not strictly necessary for understanding. They have a forward-looking. Are more linked to the role of filling gaps and involve the knowledge of objects, situations and relationships that are evoked in relation to the scenarios referred to the texts.
Features: Meet
necessary inferences are essential to link the linguistic unit to another unit before. The necessary inferences are also called bridging inferences: necessary to establish a bridge between the first and second sentence. In the literature, logic and language are also called implicatures (the bridge involves propositions and even causal inferences). Dato bridge inferences imply a reference to a linguistic unit above, have also been called retrospective.
Features:
- in understanding are made. Involve the assessment of general knowledge (enitemas).
- The difficulty of understanding the linguistic inputs depends on the difficulty of access to enitemas (general knowledge) and the difficulty to evaluate them.
- are needed to define consistency.
- consume cognitive resources, as reflected in the time of comprehension.
are not strictly necessary for understanding. They have a forward-looking. Are more linked to the role of filling gaps and involve the knowledge of objects, situations and relationships that are evoked in relation to the scenarios referred to the texts.
Features: Meet
- processing function, variable according to readers' personal characteristics, intentions, etc.
- are part of the most interactive more sensitive to the thought processes and less automated process of discourse comprehension.
In a speech pragmatic producer is required to identify issues, which are then shared with the receiver and add any new information, they also added previous thematic information. Thus, understanding the speech is an activity that involves processes of memory access and retrieval of information in the possession, assimilation of new ideas to those given, the definition of anchor points between each other, etc. Inferences such bridge, the strategy of minimum speech (which is that the speech contains only the necessary information), the inferential nature of speech, etc.
process of assimilating new information to already given:
The receiver expects the producer's speech marked use information given to mean that they have in advance, and marked as to refer to new information do not know.
The receiver expects the producer's speech marked use information given to mean that they have in advance, and marked as to refer to new information do not know.
integration between production and comprehension processes:
comprehension and production can be understood as activities cooperatives, which performs the cognitive system in order to develop a shared set of beliefs, knowledge, ideas and intentions, through processes of new information from the information shared.
comprehension and production can be understood as activities cooperatives, which performs the cognitive system in order to develop a shared set of beliefs, knowledge, ideas and intentions, through processes of new information from the information shared.
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