Definition Of Jazz In Poetry

Language Perception and Understanding of Words Recognition

INTRODUCTION

Distinction between linguistic, phenomenological or subjective and processing in language comprehension:
phenomenological point of view: the concept of understanding is not for the mental process as it occurs suddenly, with little development effort by who understands. Does not fit with the mental state, because no extension in time and the qualities of experience.
Processing point of view: when the subject recognizes a word is in a different mental state prior to recognize it, and this new state is a consequence of linguistic performance processes time consuming susceptible target register.
Linguistic aspects: the lexical competence (knowledge of words in a language) can not be understood as a computational state of mind, but as an element of language proficiency lacks temporality.

Distinction between formal or structural features and semantic content or both of words and of sentences:
juxtaposition input representation

	Understanding words	Understanding prayers
task type	compares an external stimulus with ¬ es tructure of information represented in memory processes	Use combinatorial syntactic and semantic words to form sentence ¬ nes.
type of representation	subléxicas linguistic units (¬ fone but, syllables, morphemes)	lexical linguistic units (and subléxicas) and supraléxicas.
combinatorial processes	affix rules apply ¬ BLES sublexical elements (paradigmatic processes)	structure-dependent rules applicable to lexical items (syntagmatic processes)
	activated phonological information from ¬ GICA (segmental and metrical structure) and morphology (sublexical units)	representations are activated and lexical and sublexical elements. Representa-tions operate with output processes words.
Representation	output lexical representations (structure f or ¬ nology, morphology, semantics and non ¬ tactic)	representation of the meaning of the sentence (¬ sicional propose content and propositional attitude).
Similarities	- Require the use of combinatorial rules - Two levels of representation: STRUCTURAL level properties (in words: phonological and morphological structure, in sentences: syntactic structure) and level of semantic properties.

different meanings or senses of the notion of understanding:
understanding can be understood from a phenomenological or psycholinguistics. The latter include several levels: comprehension of words and sentences.
is also possible to understand understanding as a process (through which the subject comes to creating a representation) or as a state (which occurs after creating the representation). However, both have problems: it is subject is not aware of the process, as it arises suddenly and instantly, on the other hand, does not fit as a state, as it lacks the dimension and temporal qualities of experience associated with the states. From the psycholinguistic point of view, that the subject is not aware of the processes does not mean they do not occur, so the comprehension is a complex process, which in turn implies other threads easier.

REPRESENTATION AND PROCESSES IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF WORDS

types of information involved in this process:
stimulate or entry information: phonemes and graphemes (key acoustic phonemic features, etc.).
lexical information: must be activated in memory and compared with information from the stimulus.
Background information: linguistic (text or speech) and extralinguistic (environment or memory).

word recognition process:
The word recognition results from a coupling process. Thus, sensory input activates the knowledge stored in memory. There is a link sensory input to a lexical entry or knowledge stored in memory.

Basic questions that arise in the recognition lexicon:
What the listener recognizes meaningful units language (morphemes, words) present in the phonological representation of a sentence? Is mapped sensory input with some knowledge stored in memory or mental dictionary (lexical identification.)
What kind of information about the words of the language we have stored in memory and how that information is organized? How
input representation that triggers the process of word recognition, ie what are the units used in perceptual identification of words in a sentence?
What is the nature of the activation process (ratio of represenaciones input lexicon and internal representations of the lexicon)?

nature of lexical representations stored in memory. Basic elements of representation:
The knowledge that every speaker / listener has about the words of their language can be characterized as a network of lexical entries with certain properties or elements. Each includes the elements:

1. phonological representation, which specifies the segmental structure of the word (sequence of phonemes with their distinctive features), organized perhaps syllabic units and a stress pattern. Representation
2. spelling: made by a sequence of characters with visual features. Representation
3. Morphological structure derived from the lexical entry and, in some cases, its grammatical category.
4. syntactic representation: sets the grammatical category of the lexical entry and its subcategorization frame, ie the structural contexts that can occur.
5. Semantic representation: semantic primitive features added or a statement-definition as a dictionary.
6. List of terms and concepts related to the lexical entry for its meaning. Issue

raised the access code and segmentation processes:
How is the representation of input that activates the process of word recognition, ie what are the units used in perceptual identification of words in a sentence? Mental lexical access is driven by the initial portion of the word carries the most relevant information. So are several hypotheses about the identity of lexical access code:

1. Existence of an abstract representation and shallow (phonological or spelling) that facilitates the activation of the recognition processes
2. access Existence of representations in word recognition, although they may differ from other words in terms of certain properties of the lexical entry in question.
3. The last option does not posit representations. The recognition occurs directly between sensory input and the lexical entry. Lexical processes operate by accumulation of acoustic and contextual memory activated lexical representations. Here the problem of lack of invariance is moved to the lexical level of processing.

segmentation processes:
All models that postulate an access code explain their production under a segmentation process sensory input into discrete linguistic units. Stressing the syllable segmentation unit as the access code. This phenomenon is related to certain features of the language. Empirical evidence:
The time spent on detecting a sequence CV (Consonant Vowel) was lower if the sequence was a syllable of the word that was part if was for another word. Languages \u200b\u200bwith regular syllabic structure facilitate the use of the syllable as the access code, while languages \u200b\u200bwith irregular syllabic structure ignored. Operations
word recognition: initial lexicon
Contact: Reception sound wave (or visual stimulus) and converted into representations that can be coupled to internal representations of the lexicon (the set of possible lexical candidates called initial cohort of words). Activation
: initial vocabulary due to contact changes occur (activation) in the state of those lexical entries that correspond to the representation derived from the analysis of sensory input.
Selection (reverse of activation) . Different models of this process:

According to McClelland and Rumelhart
1. selection was checked by differential activation of candidate forming the initial cohort. Thus, as sensory information is accumulated, the candidates are receiving inconsistent with this inhibitory signals, which reduces the level of activation. According
2. Marslen-Wilson, the selection is a progressive decrease in the size of the cohort of candidates. So the rejected candidates are eliminated until sun is one. According
3. Forster and Bednall is an exhaustive search process of candidates through a list of lexical entries sorted by frequency of use, so the candidates will be located more frequent before less frequent.

Recognition : shows the exact moment that the word is identified unequivocally. Is determined by the physical properties of stimuli, intrinsic properties and number of competitors that has the word in the mental lexicon.

1. interactive model (connections), reflecting ongoing changes in the activation of representations at the time of word recognition. Model
2. self: The word recognition is complete when the system establishes a reliable correspondence between the stimulating signal and its corresponding lexical entry.

lexical access: allows the properties of lexical representations which has not been accessed are made available to language understanding system for later use. Models

1. self (two stages): the syntactic information, semantic and pragmatic about the words only made available once they have been recognized under its formal properties.
2. Interactive models (one step): The information is activated simultaneously with the formal description of the lexical entry, ie, as soon as contact is made initial lexicon. So access to semantic and pragmatic properties can occur before the subject had identified the word

METHODS STUDY OF THE UNDERSTANDING OF WORDS AND DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR EFFECTS REGISTERED

word recognition is not directly observable, therefore indirect procedures should be designed based on the log time spent by listeners in language identification tasks. This time spent showing the complexity of the processes.

1. on-line tasks: o work in progress. Possible to examine the underlying processes simultaneously, in real time.
2. off-line tasks, or tasks off course. Collect responses to further delay the implementation processes. Procedures

timing of word recognition:
off-line procedures:

1. taquistocópica id: presentation of sequences of letters, with periods of exposure to be increased, in order to observe the identification threshold for different stimuli. The main drawback is that it facilitates the involvement of all kinds of strategies reconstruction post-stimulus perceptual line with expectations of control.
2. lexical decision: quick presentation of a sequence of letters that the subject has to classify as words or no words. It is assumed that the subject must consult the mental lexicon in order to decide whether the presented stimulus is represented in it. The total time minus the time of the motor response preparation and execution. This task has not been eradicated as post-lexical effects of response, because it is a decisional manders in kind.
3. Procedure name: it seeks to reduce the need to make decisions (avoid post-response effects.) Consists pronounce loudly and quickly visually presented verbal stimuli by recording the TR. It is assumed that the time needed to deliver the stimulus is determined by the availability of lexical representations corresponding to the input sensory. Hopefully advantage of words over non-words and the words most frequently on the less frequent.

Procedures On-line:

Detection of stimuli: a variant of decision tasks. The subject's task is to answer each time you identify a stimulus language (phoneme, syllable, word). The detection time is interpreted as reflecting the cognitive work that the system performs at the time of detection. It is useful in:

1. Studies on the nature of the representations of lexical access. Studies
2. recognition of ambiguous words in context.

Examples of main experimental effects:
frequency of use of the words:

1. more familiar words are recognized faster than the less familiar.
2. less frequent words have higher lexical decision latencies, and take longer to be named. Both effects are constant. The magnitude of the effect is smaller on naming tasks than on lexical decision task.
3. hypothesis is warranted access two independent mechanisms: RP content by activation processes, sorting and searching, and functional RP by parsing process. Data support this hypothesis:
• Bradley noted that the frequency effect only affects the open-class lexical items (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and not the closed class (prepositions, articles, conjunctions).
• The observation that agrammatic patients who suffer a selective alteration of syntactic processing do not show differential sensitivity of open and closed vocabularies, both types to be affected by frequency.

nonwords versus words:

1. time it takes to accept stimuli as words is less than the invested in rejecting stimuli categorized as non-words, even if infrequent compared with non-words words.
2. A word does not take longer to be denied the greater its resemblance to a word, because this similarity interference generated in the system of recognition.
3. Time spent in rejecting sequences of letters that do not meet the restrictions phonological and orthographic (no resemblance to the words) is shorter than the RP of common words. This is considered an indication that the subject makes a search in their internal lexicon that ends in failure.
4. interference effect: the effect derived word - no word. This is an increase in response latency no words whose initial portion is a real word. Is explained by a response bias induced by the presence in the non-word, a lexical item that leads to creating a false alarm.

priming effect:
The presentation of certain lexical stimuli (primes) prior to a critical word easy / difficult to recognize (priming effect), provided they have a relationship with them. Always on actual words. The most frequent priming effects are

1. Priming of repetition is decreased response latency of a word when it is filed earlier in the same list and same sentence.
2. semantic priming: reduced response latency when the word used as prime is a lexical item of similar meaning to the word critical.
3. contextual priming: reduced response latency when the fragment of the sentence preceding the critical word about words exerts excitatory effects predictable and appropriate to that context.

The priming effect has been the subject of conflicting explanations for the different patterns of RP: Model

1. self: Foster favors intraléxica explanation, that the presentation of the inducing stimulus (prime) in the repetition priming originates opening of lexical representation in memory. In presenting the same word as a stimulus critical lexical entry corresponding to the critical word is already open in the repetition priming, and will be verified through partnerships between lexical entries belonging to the same semantic field in semantic priming, which also facilitates the RP, even if the word is absent from the context. Model
2. Interactive Marslen-Wilson Morton and interpret the priming effect in terms of the influence of extraléxicos in word processing, especially supraléxicas representations (semantic, pragmatic) that have a top-down influence on the RP.

ambiguity (or polysemy) lexical: Refers to
expressions with a single structural representation / formal (phonological and syntactic words in sentences) and more than a representation of meaning. When we receive an ambiguous word occurs mental representation of all possible meanings of that term. Usually the context to determine the proper meaning. When asked how does the context there are two explanations:

1. The defending a shortcut, guided by the context, the proper meaning of the ambiguous word, so that the other meanings are neither activated. Experimental evidence for:
   • lexical priming studies / contextual: the subjects do not detect an ambiguity Lexical disambiguation in context. This identification does not occur if the proper meaning of the word is the most common. Studies
   • judgments of ambiguity: decision latency is reduced when the word is preceded in the list, an ambiguous word that has been primed with a related meaning don the critical word, whereas if the priming facilitated increased significance ambiguous word alternative.
2. Those who advocate a multiple access all meanings of the word, moving the disambiguation of context effect until a post-lexical interpretation.
• Data for unsatisfactory because to be based on off-line procedures, they can only reveal what happens after the recognition, not during it. It does seem that the context exerts a desambiguante, or post-lexical influence (comes after RP ambiguous on the subject with all possible meanings.
• Foss and Jenkins observed that when the critical phoneme followed an ambiguous word latency increased detection compared to a control condition with no ambiguous words. This was a modal priming experiment with lexical decision task and naming. Results: When the task is performed after the ambiguous word, all the meanings of it were equally accessible, even in contexts biased. If the task takes between 700/800 msec., The latency decreased. He concludes that the disambiguation of context effect appears only after a short delay, during which there is a fast, automatic and unconscious, guided by the structure of all the meanings of the word.

WORD RECOGNITION MODELS

What distinguishes the various models is the degree of encapsulation or isolation computational RP processes. Interactive models
lexical processing:
postulate an early influx supraléxicas representations (semantic and pragmatic) on word identification processes, along with perceptual representation of the signal. Lolog
Morton Model:

1. Shortcut (rejects the division into stages) and interactive (supports parallel access RP system to multiple sources of sensory information, syntax, semantics and from the context.)
2. Each word is represented in a Lolog mental lexicon, a device sensitive to certain types of information that passively records the relevant characteristics of each lexical item. Receives information from every sensory input (noise, graph) and context (syntactic, semantic) and accumulates until it reaches a saturation point or optimal level of arousal that triggers the Lolog and the word is recognized.
3. logogenes system receives information from two sources: first sound and graphics from sensory input, and other syntactic and semantic information from the linguistic context of the cognitive system.
4. Moreover there are three systems: logogenes visual input (encoding based information), the logogenes auditory input (encoding phonological information) and the output logogenes (responsible for the oral production and written). Due to the strict separation between systems logogenes visual and auditory input, the model allows no influence of phonological representations in visual recognition, or the spelling in auditory recognition of words, which is opposed to certain tests of the possible interference of certain phonological tasks on visual word processing. Models
self

They rely on the existence of a series of processes designed to retrieve lexical entries, which run from perceptual representations (acoustic, phonological, orthographic) and the contextual variables that influence higher order.
search model (Forster): Two stages of lexical identification operations:

1. Stage 1: the recovery process of the form is made a comparison of the perceptual representation of stimulus with phonological and orthographic representation. Takes place in the peripheral storage (which may be of several types: checker for visual cues, auditory phonological and semantic to enter for the production of words) that contains a list of lexical entries (ordered from highest to lowest frequency of use and contains specification of the phonological structure and spelling of each word) and access codes the initial lexicon contact)
2. Stage 2: Processes of meaning recovery: the comparison process verified by a serial and exhaustive search of the lexical entry in peripheral files, it proceeds to the central file, depicting the syntactic and semantics of words. Findings appear post-access processes that confirm the selection of the lexical entry and made available to the following language comprehension processes.

search mechanism Forster model accounts for all experimental effects mentioned:

1. frequency effect: it explains Under the management of the lexical entries in the peripheral file (compartments of entries with the same code lexicon), where the most common positions prior to the least frequent. Thus, a more common word is located before another less common.
2. words versus non-words is due to a thorough and fruitless search in the archives peripherals, because the absence of non-words in them they take longer to be rejected.
3. contextual priming effect: obey connections between semantic representations of lexical entries in the central file. Priming in the lexicon, access to the prime word takes place through the peripheral file, the frequency controlled, and access to the target word would be controlled by the central file. Mixed models

comprehension of words:
Situated halfway between autonomous and interactive models, postulates an autonomous initial phase and a later in which there is interaction between different kinds of information. Cohort Model
Mars-Wilson:
Apply two stages in series, an interactive self and other:

Autonomous
1. : active simultaneously a finite set - or cohort - of lexical candidates, and is based solely acoustic-phonetic properties of sensory input.
2. Interactive: select the best candidate by disabling both candidates incompatible sensory input as to the context. Thus, reducing the initial cohort of candidates to be activated a lexical entry only.

A determining factor is the uniqueness or optimum point of recognition, from which the candidate is chosen lexical discrimination of the remaining candidates neighbors of the initial cohort. This section defines the maximum duration of the stage (autonomous) initial acoustic-phonetic.
The model has two drawbacks:

1. Difficulty to account for the effect of frequency. The solution to incorporate the notion of activation to explain why two words that share the same optimal point are identified at different times (most frequently identified earlier).
2. inability to explain the recovery of errors. If a perceptual error or pronunciation to affect the initial portion of a word, no progress can be corrected, since the initial cohort of candidates will only contain words that start with the wrong sequence. The solution involves the activation of elements selected from the original cohort based on global acoustic similarity, allowing locate the correct lexical representation.

SOME REFLECTIONS ON THE AUTONOMY OF LEXICAL PROCESSING

• Of the various studies show that the understanding of words functions as an autonomous system for processing at least in the early stages, ie as a cognitive module specific purpose which is free from the influence of higher-level information (linguistic and extralinguistic) and employs phonological and lexical information (perceptual representations and internal reporting system.) This allows you to segregate the lexical knowledge in other types of non-linguistic knowledge.
• seems that the context has more influence on the comprehension of spoken language, due to time constraints of this and because of the degraded stimulus suffers in comparison with written language. In relation to the identification of words, different context produce different effects:

The paradigmatic context is built using semantic association between words. Is explained by the independent models, they proposed a network of internal connections to the lexicon that can facilitate / inhibit the recovery of semantic representations of words. This is the case in search patterns that distinguish the organization peripheral files listed as separate lexical entries, the organization of the central file in a network of concepts.
The semantic context created by the syntactic structures and semantics of the sentence. Explained by the interactive methods that allow an early influx of information supraléxica (representations of sentences) for RP processes.
hoped that the linguistic context (syntagmatic and paradigmatic) imposes restrictions different from the understanding of words than those that impose extra-linguistic contexts (physical, social, etc.) That are held on regular communication exchanges.

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